Course Syllabi ~ Spring Semester, 2001

Cleveland State University

UST 302 - CONTEMPORARY URBAN ISSUES (Section 1)

Version 11/00

Maxine Goodman Levin College of Urban Affairs (UST 302 )

MEETING TIME: Monday, Wednesday, Friday 9:45-10:50 UR 102

Department of Urban Studies Spring Semester, 2001

Instructor: Prof. Dr. Harry L. Margulis

Office:Room 266, Chester Building

Phone: 216-687-2163

E-mail:   h.margulis@popmail.csuohio.edu

Office hours: Monday, Wednesday, 1:00-2:00 and by appointment.

This course fulfills the WRITING ACROSS THE CURRICULUM GenEd university requirement. Students must earn a grade of C or better in their concept paper writing assignment in order to apply UST 302 toward this requirement. This course also fulfills the AFRICAN AMERICAN EXPERIENCE: RACE AND RACISM GenEd university requirement.

ATTENDANCE POLICY:

An attendance sheet shall be circulated precisely at 9:50 a.m. Please make sure that you sign the sheet. Lateness or failure to sign the attendance sheet shall count as an absence. You may have three excused absences. For each absence thereafter students shall lose five percent of the assigned attendance grade. In brief, six absences shall result in the receipt of a zero for the attendance grade.

Do not enter the classroom late. Late entry disturbs the continuity of the lecture; it is disrespectful to the instructor and to students who are conscientious. If students persist in arriving late, the instructor shall lock the door precisely at 9:50 p.m.

EXAMINATION POLICY:

All take-home examinations must be submitted on the assigned dates as indicated below. Failure to submit a midterm examination on time shall result in a full grade reduction for each day the examination is late. All examinations must be hand delivered in hard copy to the instructor. Electronic delivery of examinations (e-mail or zip file) is unacceptable. The midterm take-home examination is due Wednesday, February 28, 2001. The final take-home examination is due Wednesday, May 9, 2001 at 8:30 am.

The final examination shall be administered on the day and at the time designated by the Administration in the CSU Fall 2000 Bulletin. See Article 11, 11.2 A(1), Page 14, Agreement, CSU and American Association of University Professors, CSU Chapter, Effective October 1, 1997).

• For all examination questions present the author(s) arguments; do not argue you own position - personal feelings, or streams of consciousness. Quotes from texts other than those used in the class should be avoided. The instructor needs to know that you have read and understood the required readings.

• In-class lectures and discussion examination answers (not covered by the above paragraph) can be argumentative, informative, or persuasive; they must contain supporting evidence (facts, statistics, examples, or authoritative opinion). Use a structure that helps you organize your answer(s), for example, arrange ideas by time, importance, by problem and solution. Make sure you summarize the main points in your conclusions. Avoid plagiarism; cite to sources correctly and use quotation marks where appropriate. You may argue you own position, but you must document the validity, correctness or truthfulness of that position. Cite in-text references correctly especially if they refer to non-class sources and be sure to include an alphabetically listed reference section. Undocumented answers with which the instructor disagrees shall lose points. In case of conflict over an answer, the instructor wins. Make sure your position is sustainable.

• Please write clearly. Indicate the part and number of the question answered at the top of the first page of each essay. Use grammatically correct, standard English. Questions are graded on the basis of content and writing quality. Points shall be deducted for errors of logic, grammar and syntax. Please word-process your answers (double-space, 12 point font size). Handwritten examinations shall not be accepted. You must write at least three pages for each question. Try to avoid writing more than three pages, but points shall not be deducted if you exceed the three page requirement. Keep quotes to a minimum. Short quotes should be imbedded in the text; longer quotes indented and single-spaced. No quotations marks are needed for imbedded quotations.

• Each examination should have a cover page indicating your name, the part(s) and question(s) answered. Staple the pages together in the upper left-hand corner. Do not submit the examination in a folder or binder.

COURSE DESCRIPTION:

A festering question consistently avoided by urban policy makers is the divisiveness of race and what can be done to bring cohesiveness to confrontational politics and society in general. Exploitation and violence, as well as the politics of race are haunting America's central cities. What has emerged are serious tensions between rights and responsibilities in legal responses to crime, work place discrimination, and residential segregation. Why are there persisting tensions between the goals of social separation from whites and inclusion within the broader society? Why are coalitions with other racial and ethnic minorities so important for achieving legislative and administrative changes? As West[1] notes, "Race is the most explosive issue in American life precisely because it forces us to confront the tragic facts of poverty and paranoia, despair and distrust. In short, a candid examination of race matters takes us to the core of the crisis of American democracy." Inevitably we must ask ourselves the pinnacle question -- what kind of nation do we desire? -- one of equality or injustice, one offering opportunity to all, or one in which opportunity exists only for the few.

COURSE METHOD:

This course uses an interactive teaching approach consisting of lectures, discussion, student presentation and debate methods.

WRITING ASSIGNMENT:

Each student shall be required to prepare a concept paper based on a topic related to the course content.

• Several reference sources -- articles, books, chapters in books, electronic journal articles, reports, internet sources -- are to be used for each paper. Do not depend solely upon internet sources. Quality research requires a variety of sources and balanced perspectives.

• You shall need to read at least 250 or more pages to satisfactorily write a high quality concept paper.

• Concept papers shall be no more than eight word-processed, double-spaced pages (approximately 2000 - 2500 words; assume 250 words per page).

• You may attach appendices --bar graphs, line graphs, pie charts and so forth. Whenever appendices are included, be sure that they are clearly explained in the text, consecutively identified in parentheses by Roman numerals or figure numbers, and that sources are identified. The appendices should be labeled (i.e., Table 1: Socioeconomic Characteristics of Occupational Groups) and, if separated from the paper, independently understood by a reader. Sources for appendices must be indicated beneath the tables, charts or graphs and the source must appear on the reference page.

• Include all references to books, articles, and other resource materials on a separate reference page. References should be alphabetically arranged by author as shown in the Urban Affairs Review style sheet.

• All concept papers are to be written in standard English, spell-checked and proof read for accuracy.

• On a separate page preceding your text, include a 150 word abstract and a short biosketch, not to exceed 100 words (See examples below). The title of the paper and student identification should be included on the cover page. Number the pages in the text consecutively. Refer to the Urban Affairs Review style sheet (class handout) for the manuscript form required for concept papers.

• Each concept paper must have a concise thesis statement that is implicitly stated in the first paragraph. Identify and justify any assumptions made, draw clear and obvious conclusions, and be sure that your conclusions are justified by the evidence.

• Plagiarism may result in the student receiving a failing grade for the piece of work involved.

• When citing to a secondary source in a book or article, use the following form: (Van Dijk as cited by Campbell 1995, 27).

• All quotations must have appropriate attribution. All in-text citations must appear on the reference page (See Urban Affairs Review Manuscript Style Sheet 1999, 2d). References should be alphabetically arranged in the style shown on pages 4 - 6.

• Online sources should be listed in the following manner on your reference page (start with the author’s name): (Book) Landow, G. 1997. Hypertex 2.0: The convergence of contemporary critical theory and technology [Online]. URL http://www.stg.brown.edu/projects/hypertext/landow/ht/contents.html

  (Article in an edited online work) Keegan, J. 1999. Normandy: The invasion conceived, 1941-43. In Encyclopedia Britannica [Online]. URL http://normandy,eb.com/normandy/week1/buildup.html

  (World Wide Web document) Dice, R. 1998, June 15. Web Database Crash course – Lesson 1 [WWW document]. URL http://www.hotwired.com/webmonkey/98/24/index0a.html?tw=frontdoor.

  (Online newspaper) McDowell, R. 1999, April 12. Colorado students struggle to understand rampage. The Boston Globe [Online newspaper]. URL http://www.globe.com/news/daily/21/school.htm (Online magazine article) Dubow, C. 1999, April 21. Turning acorns into trees. Forbes [Online magazine]. URL http://www.forbes.com/tool/html/99/apr/0421/feat.htm.

• Handwritten papers shall not be accepted. Keep quotes to a minimum. Do not string quotes together; paraphrase and cite correctly. Quotations. Short quotations within the text should be indicated by quotation marks; long quotations or extract material (without quotation marks) should be indented about [1 ½ inches] along both margins. Words, punctuation, or italicization not present in the original should be enclosed in square brackets or noted as “ [italics added]” (See Urban Affairs Review Manuscript Style Sheet 1999, 2c).

• The checklist found in the Urban Affairs Review style sheet on pages 7 and 8 should be consulted. Also, use the list below to evaluate your concept paper prior to submission.

1. Materials - is the assignment carried out using the appropriate up-to-date resources?
2. Research Design - Organizational Structure - Is there an introduction? Are the points which follow easily understood? Are they supported with convincing examples? Does the conclusion summarize the preceding material? Does it answer the question or assignment?
3. Style - Is the writing clear? Are the transitions smooth? (allowing the reader to easily follow the argument?) Is spelling a problem? grammar?
4. Evaluation of content - Is the interpretation understandable and convincing? Is the subject covered well?
5. Conclusion - Is the essay adequately summarized and brought to a conclusion? Is the paper creative and original? Is the footnoting consistent in form? Is there a well documented bibliography? Is there evidence of a strong research effort?

• The form of the abstract should be as follows:

  RESALE HOUSING PRICES AND HOUSING MARKETS IN CLEVELAND, OHIO’S SUBURBAN RINGS

  ABSTRACT This study shows that in the suburban rings surrounding Cleveland, Ohio average resale housing prices are sustained through capitalization of quality-price preferences for selective housing and community traits. In addition, average resale housing prices are highest where local fiscal capacity is built upon a strong residential-nonresidential tax base, where the total valuation resulting is capitalized into housing stock prices. High total valuation per pupil enables school districts to maintain satisfactory expenditures per pupil that contribute to the sustainability of resale housing prices. Nonetheless, population growth in the peripheral, inner- and outer-edge suburban rings is redirecting investment away from the contiguous ring suburbs where the levying of a high effective millage is causing total valuations per pupil to fall. Diminishing school district quality and a shrinking tax base are harbingers of suburban distress and housing disinvestment. [135 words].

  BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Dr. Harry Margulis is an associate professor in the College of Urban Affairs and First College. My research interests deal with housing, urban structure, and urban processes. Recently published articles appear in the Urban Affairs Review and Urban Studies. [39 words]

• If you have any questions concerning manuscript style, please consult Turabian, K.L. 1987. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Fifth Edition.

• Concept papers are due: Monday, March 19, 2001. Papers may be rewritten and resubmitted. Revised papers shall be reevaluated and assigned a new grade by the instructor; previously assigned grades shall be ignored. All rewritten concept paper without exception are due: Fridaly, April 27, 2001. No paper shall be accepted after the thirtheenth week of the term.

WRITING CENTER - SATELLITE OFFICE:

An easily accessible satellite operation of the Writing Center is now open in the Levin College. Elizabeth Hays, a very experienced writer tutor, is available every Wednesday from 3:00 to 6:00 to provide assistance to students. Walk-ins are welcome. To insure a time, make an appointment by calling the Office of Student Services at 687-3884. Students are encouraged to use this valuable academic support to enhance your written communication and (possibly) improve your grades. Ms. Hayes is located in UR 245.

REQUIRED TEXTS:

Cose, E. 1993. The rage of a privileged class - Why are middle-class blacks angry? Why should America care? New York: Harper-Collins Publishers. Required (Cose)

Kellogg, W. 1996. African Americans in urban America - Contemporary experiences. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. -Recommended-Not Required (K)

Pattillo-McCoy, M. 1999. Black picket fences - Privilege and peril among the black middle class. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. (P)

West, C. 1993. Race matters. New York: Vintage Books. (W)

Woo, D. 2000. Glass ceilings and Asian Americans. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.

FINAL GRADES:

Final grades shall be determined on the following basis:

RECOMMENDED READINGS SCHEDULE:

Jan 17 Introduction -- The organization of the course.

Jan 19 Introduction: Race Matters, 3-13 (West) Jan 22 Nihilism in Black America, 17-31 (West)

Jan 24 The Pitfalls of Racial Reasoning, 35-49 (West) Jan 26 The Crisis of Black Leadership, 53-70 (West)

Jan 29 Demystifying the New Black Conservatism, 73-90 (West)

Jan 31 Beyond Affirmative Action: Equality and Identity, 93-99 (West)

Feb 2 On Black-Jewish Relations, 103-116 (West)

Feb 5 Black Sexuality: The Taboo Subject, 119-131 (West)

Feb 7 Malcolm X and Black Rage, 135-151 (West)

Feb 9 Introduction: Shouts and Whispers, 1-10 (Cose)

Why Successful People Cry the Blues, Chapter 1: 11-26 (Cose)

Feb 12 Tiptoeing Around the Truth, Chapter 2: 27-52 (Cose)

Feb 14 A Dozen Demons, Chapter 3: 53-72 (Cose)

Feb 16 A Hostile and Welcoming Workplace, Chapter 4: 73-92 (Cose)

Feb 21 Crime, Class, and Clichés, Chapter 5: 93-110 (Cose)

Feb 23 Affirmative Action and the Dilemma of the “Qualified”, Chapter 6: 111-134 (Cose)

Young People, Old Ideas, Chapter 7: 135-152 (Cose)

Feb 26 White Racism, Black Racism, and the Search for Our Better Selves, Chapter 8: 153-180 (Cose)

Feb 28 No More White Guilt, Chapter 9: (Cose)

Mid-term examination due

Mar 2 Chapter 1: The Black Middle Class: Who, When, and Where? (P-M)

Mar 5 Chapter 2: The Making of Groveland (P-M)

Mar 7 Chapter 3: Generations through a Changing Economy (P-M)

Mar 9 Chapter 4: Neighborhood Networks and Crime (P-M)

Spring Break,Mar. 12-Mar. 18, 2001

Mar 19 Chapter 5: Growing Up in Groveland (P-M) Chapter 6: In a Ghetto Trance (P-M)

Concept paper due

Mar 21 Chapter 7: Nike’s Reign (P-M)

Mar 23 Chapter 8: William “Spider” Waters, Jr.: Straddling Two Worlds (P-M)

Last day to withdraw

Mar 26 Chapter 9: Typical Terri Jones (P-M)

Mar 28 Conclusions (P-M)

Mar 30 Introduction (Woo) Chapter 1: Inventing and Reinventing “Model Minorities” (Woo)

Apr 2 Chapter 2: The State of Research on the Glass Ceiling

Apr 4 Chapter 3: A History of Virtual Segregation (Woo)

Apr 6 Chapter 4: The Educational Pipeline (Woo)

Apr 9 Chapter 5: The Glass Ceiling at “XYZ Aerospace” (Woo)

Apr 11 Chapter 6: The Bigger Picture (Woo)

Apr. 13,16,18,20,23 Instructor’s Lectures (See below) Apr 25 Student presentations

Apr 27 Student presentations

Last day to submit rewritten concept paper

Apr 30 Student presentations

May 2 Student presentations

May 4 Student presentations

Last day of instruction

May 9 Final examination due

Instructor’s Lectures - Theoretical and Policy Issues:

(Source: Burman, S. 1995. The Black Progress Question - Explaining the African American Predicament. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

The Inevitability of Antinomy These Things Take Time: The Liberal Tradition and Black Progress Black Progress - America Right or Wrong: The Neoconservative Response Everything and Nothing: Marxism, Capitalism, and Black Progress Been Down So Long: Race, Culture, and Black Nationalism

Instructor’s Lectures - Unresolved Issues:

(Source: Cose, E. 1997. Color-Blind (Seeing Beyond Race in a Race Obsessed World. New York: Harper-Collins Publishers.

Introduction - Trapped in the dominant dialogue Can a new race surmount old prejudices? If destiny is not all in the genes, why do we keep looking there? The limits of desegregation Should affirmative action be kicked out of college? Does affirmative action have a future? Looking into and behind the color-blind mind

Other lecture material sources: Kellogg, W. 1996. African Americans in Urban America Contemporary Experiences. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

Chapter 8: Urban Crime

The Myth of Black Violence 224-227

Black Against Black Violence” and “Violence and Crime in the Black Community 228-231 )

Crime, Youth Unemployment, and the Black Urban Underclass 232-240

Politics, Public Policy and Street Crime 241-250

Chapter 3: Work Force Participation and Equal Access

Black Women in the Workforce 72-79

Pressure Builds for Retreat on Affirmative Action 79-84

The War on Equal Opportunity 85-89

Class, Not Race 89-94

Ruling Rocks Foundation of Affirmative Action 95-99

Chapter 4: Community Economic Development

They Myth of Community Development 100-110

Black Initiative and Governmental Responsibility 110-115

Empowering Poor Neighborhoods 116-124

Chapter 5: Urban Education

From No Schools to Separate Schools to Desegregated Schools 126-136

Independent Neighborhood Schools: A Framework for the Education of African Americans 137-143

Education and Cultural Diversity in the United States 144- 156

Chapter 6: Housing

All the Discomforts of Home: The Politics and Economics of Housing 158-173

The Black Flight to the “Burbs” 174-177

The Quiet Integration of Suburbia 178-179

Racially Diverse Communities: A National Necessity 180-201

EXAMINATION (25 points per question)

Answer two essay questions. One essay must be derived from PART I, the other from PART II.

MIDTERM EXAMINATION

PART I (West)

1. Paranoia, homophobia, xenophobia, patriarchal power, and a fear of cultural hybridity permeate African American society. Discuss.

2. West acknowledges that black’s suffer ontological wounds and emotional scars all of which leads to a deep seated anger, a boiling sense of rage, and a passionate pessimism regarding America’s will to justice. Discuss.

3. West criticizes Black leadership - academic and political - questioning their motives, commitments, lack of vision, morality, and their positions on significant issues. Discuss.

PART II (Cose)

1. Cose notes that race cannot be treated as a total irrelevancy because the black middle-class confronts a reservoir of despair; that regardless of status, political persuasion, or accomplishment they are forced to bear an incredible burden of living a dual life. Discuss.

2. Cose states that racism is not always just an illogical, detached, and cruel attitude deriving from callous hate because racism and hate have their genesis in fear. When fear is irrational or unexamined, then racism must be held accountable. Discuss.

3. Corporate America, according to Cose, is playing a cruel trick on African-Americans. A host of other factors, having nothing to do with ability or merit, ultimately dictates how high one can rise and those factors often differ as a function of race. Discuss.

FINAL EXAMINATION

Answer two essay questions. One essay must be derived from PART I, the other from PART II

. PART I .

1.Black middle-class neighborhoods are characterized by more poverty, higher crime, worse schools, and fewer services than white middle-class neighborhoods. How does this context influence parents who are raising children, and adolescents and young adults who are growing up in such a neighborhood?

2. What are the distinctive choices and transitions that black middle-class youth experience? Why were some Gloveland youth following a path to success, while others had concocted a recipe for certain failure?

3. Discuss the ethnography of Groveland - linguistic style, code switching, youth style and the importance of race for cultural practices.

PART II

(Examinations questions should be available two weeks before exam date.)

STUDENT DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

Procedure:

Form groups of not less than four students. Spend ten to fifteen minutes discussing the proposition. Refer to Cose’s book, The rage of a privileged class for substantive arguments. Jot down five major points that substantiate the argument. What do you think about this argument?

1. Proposition: The black middle-class should be responsible for the well-being of the black underclass and penalized for transgressions of the black criminal class.

2. Proposition: Abolishing affirmative action would make black intellectual capability easier to prove.

3. Proposition: The state of race relations is bad. The ‘next generation’ for all its idealism, open-mindedness, and willingness to embrace equality and racial integration, is not even close to mastering the art of how to get along.

4. Proposition: Whatever conditions blacks find themselves in is not the fault - or responsibility - of society at large, and certainly not of whites, but is primarily attributable to the inherent flaws of blacks and black society.

5. Proposition: People do not have to be racists - or have any malicious intent - in order to make decisions that unfairly harm members of another race.

6. Proposition: Industry no longer believes that race relations is a problem worthy of attention. Why?

7. Proposition: Black middle-class status is provisional; there is a permanent vulnerability suffered by African- American middle-class professionals that exacts heavy emotional and psychological costs.

8. Proposition: The life chances of individual blacks has more to do with their economic class position than with their day-to-day encounters with whites.

9. Proposition: Blacks are not necessarily granted a presumption of innocence, competence, or even complete humanity. Thus, racial demons are allowed free reign as many Americans sow seeds that can only yield bitter fruit.

10. Proposition: The rational response to black crime and violence is estrangement, quarantining, and separation from that community.

11. Proposition: Stereotypes are an exaggeration but nonetheless true depiction of an ethnic group. (As Cose notes, even many black children raised in suburbia harbor fearful and terrible stereotypes of inner-city blacks.)

STUDENT DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

Procedure: Form groups of not less than four students. Spend ten to fifteen minutes discussing the proposition. Refer to Pattillo-McCoy, M. 1999. Black picket fences - Privilege and peril among the black middle classfor substantive arguments. Jot down five major points that substantiate the argument. What do you think about the rational for these argument?

1. The problems confronting middle-class African Americans are not solved by simply moving away from a low-income black family and next door to a middle-class white family. The fact that a neighborhood’s racial makeup is frequently a proxy for the things that really count - quality of schools, security, appreciation of property values, political clout, and availability of desirable amenities - attests to the ways in which larger processes of discrimination penalize blacks at the neighborhood level (Chapter 1).

2. It is evident in generations through a changing economy that middle-class African Americans run a greater risk of downward mobility than whites, who generally start off as more solidly middle class in the first place (Chapter 3). Why have the generations fared differently in Groveland? How do the generations interact and support each other?

3. In Groveland, residential stability and the strong informal ties that stability fosters do not completely prevent crime in the neighborhood but instead, they work to circumscribe the criminal activity that does exists by holding the neighborhood delinquents interlocked within the bonds of familial and neighborhood associations; networks of legitimate and deviant behavior that paradoxically, and always precariously, keeps the peace (Chapter 4).

4. Growing up in Groveland means that there are simultaneously privileges and constraints faced by the black middle class that make the intermediate position of balancing street and decent a common strategy for negotiating a variety of family situations and local and community-wide settings (Chapter 5).

5. Groveland youth exist within a continuum of ghetto participation where some youngsters exhibit the full package of gangsta styles and behaviors, while at the opposite extreme are those who scoff at the gangsta styles altogether. This continuum embodies three analytical types: consumed, thrilled, and marginal. Discuss the experiences, aesthetics, and repercussions of falling into a ghetto trance (Chapter 6).

6. Many black youth grow up within a popular-culture that targets them as consumers and inundates them with exciting images of the gangsta lifestyle for which there are serious repercussions. Describe how Nikes is indicative of the dialogue of symbols that matter for courtship, for self-esteem, for aesthetic enjoyment, for gang affiliation, and for distinction-making in Groveland (Chapter 7).

STUDENT DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

Procedure: Form groups of not less than four students. Spend twenty to thirty minutes discussing the assigned statement and where indicated the associated questions. Refer to Deborah Woo’s book Glass ceilings and Asian Americans. Jot down several major points upon which Pattilo-McCoy builds her argument(s). What do you think about the rational for these argument?

(Questions to not yet written)

CHECKLIST EVALUATION OF CONCEPT PAPER

Student’s Name :

Final Concept Paper Score: /50

A. Materials - is the assignment carried out using the appropriate up-to-date resources? Score: 5 Student score:

B. Research Design - Organizational Structure - Is there an introduction? Are the points which follow easily understood? Are they supported with convincing examples? Does the conclusion summarize the preceding material? Does it answer the question or assignment?

Score: 10

Student score:

C. Style - Is the writing clear? Are the transitions smooth? (allowing the reader to easily follow the argument?) Is spelling a problem? grammar?

Score: 10

Student score:

D. Evaluation of content - Is the interpretation understandable and convincing? Is subject covered well?

Score: 10

Student score:

E. Conclusion - Is the essay adequately summarized and brought to a conclusion? Is the paper creative and original? Score: 5

Student score:

F. In-text citations and reference page - Are the in-text citations consistent in form? Are all in-text citations listed on the reference page? Do the references follow the Urban Affairs Review manuscript style sheet? Is there a well documented reference page containing at least several references drawn from different sources (i.e., journals, books, chapters in books, documents, online sources)?

Score: 5

Student score:

G. Abstract - Does the abstract adequately summarize the concept paper? Score: 5 Student score:

H. Biosketch - Does the biosketch adequately describe the author?

Score: 5

Student score:

Remarks:

ELEMENTS OF A PRESENTATION

Student Name: _­­­­­­­­­­­­­­_____________________________________________________________________

Comments: